The history of the Hitler salute, from its dubious Roman origins to its use by the far right

Was the Hitler salute ever used by the Romans?

Despite the reputed pedigree of the Hitler salute, there is little historical evidence from ancient sources supporting its use as a formal greeting by the Romans.

Rather than Italy at the time of the Roman republic or Roman empire, the salute gained prominence in France in the 18th century, during the French Revolution.

The artist Jacques-Louis David is credited with popularising the image. His neoclassical paintings drew heavily on themes from Roman history, with the embellishment of the straight-armed salute.

His Oath of the Horatii, completed in 1785, depicts three Roman brothers honouring their father with straight arms, palms down. The scene conveyed civic ideals of duty and sacrifice, which appealed to the French people on the eve of revolution and would influence the iconography of revolutionary politics.

In 1791, David made a sketch of the Tennis Court Oath. This was a seminal moment in the early stages of the revolution where representatives of the Third Estate (the taxpaying majority of society under the ancien régime) vowed to continue meeting until a written constitution was drafted.

David’s sketch portrays a large and animated group, many of whom are raising their arms in the so-called Roman salute. This further entrenched its pre-20th century association – even though that was ambiguous at best – with revolutionary ideals and the notion of collective resolve for the greater good.

In 1911, the French sculptor, François-Léon Sicard created a monument titled the La Convention Nationale (The National Convention). Housed within the Panthéon in Paris, the colossal sculpture features soldiers and drummers on one side, and deputies from 1792 on the other stretching their arms out towards the figure in the centre: Marianne, the personification of the French republic.

The Hitler salute’s American connection: the Bellamy salute

During the late-19th century, the idea of sticking one’s arm out in such a manner found its way into American culture through the ‘Bellamy salute’. This adaptation was created by James B Upham, an editor of a children’s magazine, on 21 October 1892 to coincide with Columbus Day.

It involved extending the right arm toward the US flag while reciting the Pledge of Allegiance, a patriotic verse written by Francis Bellamy to be recited in schoolrooms across the country. The act was intended to symbolise American patriotism.

The rise of fascism in Europe in the 20th century, however, which saw its followers using the same salute, soon roused controversy within the US. The Bellamy salute would eventually be dropped and replaced with a hand over the heart.

The salute in Fascist Italy

The Italian Fascists under the leadership of Benito Mussolini adopted the salute in the 1920s. By then, it had started to appear in films about ancient Rome, so the link that had been forged in the French Revolution was established for good.

Seeking to evoke the glory of the Roman empire, Italians embraced it as a dynamic symbol of unity, strength, nationalism and the restoration of ancient Rome’s might. As a result, it came to be equally seen as a mark of authoritarianism and militarism.

Yet Mussolini had himself been inspired by an eccentric Italian nationalist, poet and political maverick named Gabriele D’Annunzio. In 1919, he led the occupation of Fiume (modern-day Rijeka, Croatia) alongside other ardent nationalists, in defiance of the treaties imposed on Italy after the First World War.

D’Annunzio and his followers adopted several symbolic gestures as part of their bellicose and imperialistic vision, the ‘Roman salute’ among them. To use it was to revive Roman grandeur, and that thought resonated with Italy’s nascent fascist movement. It also influenced kindred far-right movements across Europe, from Spain to Romania.

The evolution into the Hitler salute

Adopted by the Nazi party, the salute was used to venerate their leader, Adolf Hitler.

Gaining that name ‘Hitler salute’, it became ubiquitous in Nazi Germany as it signified loyalty to the Führer and the Nazi cause. Those performing it would typically exclaim “Sieg heil!” (“hail victory!”) or “heil Hitler!” (“hail Hitler!”). Hitler himself affected a gesture whereby he raised his palm to the sky in acknowledgement.

The salute became a symbol of hatred and bigotry in the Allied nations during the Second World War. With the destruction of the Third Reich in 1945, and the true extent of the Holocaust and the Nazis’ crimes against humanity revealed, the salute’s association with autocracy, mass murder and racism became affirmed.

As a result, its use was widely condemned and, to this day, is banned in several countries, including Germany, Austria and Poland.

The Hitler salute and the modern far right

Despite being regarded as a hate symbol across the world, the salute continued to be seen throughout the 20th century and beyond.

It was a common sight in General Francisco Franco’s dictatorship in Spain. Even after the country’s transition to democracy following his death in 1975, diehard Francoists continue to use it openly.

Around the world, modern far-right, white supremacist and neo-Nazi groups have adopted the Roman/Hitler salute as a means of associating themselves with the fascist regimes of the 20th century.

For many, it remains an outrage to perform as it is a powerful reminder of its dark historical connotations – not its supposed Roman ones.

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